Successful home school communicators consider the audience who will read or hear the composition before they begin researching the topic. Think about how a speech on euthanasia might be received by each of these audiences:

• a few medical doctors who work at the local hospice
• a Sunday School class of 11 and 12 year girls
• a funeral home director and his staff
• a group of state or federal legislators
• a gathering of elderly nursing home residents
• a convention of pharmaceutical reps

Obviously, each of these collective audiences would have a different perspective and perhaps a biased self-interest in advocating or outlawing euthanasia. No two audiences are ever the same. (My speech students who compete in different regions of the country know this hard fact!) Excellent public speakers do their best to assess the audience in advance and tailor the message accordingly. If poor or unenlightened choices are made during the content phase, the message may be doomed no matter how brilliant the delivery. Failure to communicate ultimately rests with the speaker because the audience is always right.

Whether addressing a parent, a small group of friends, a few thousand newsletter subscribers, or an auditorium full of paid attendees, the public speaker and writer is particularly challenged by this compound question:

Who is my audience, and how will I reach them?

Understanding the audience - who they are, how they think and feel, and what they need - is essential to effective communication. This concept applies to all ages and levels of expertise: from the little boy who desperately wants another cookie to the grandparent who needs a ride to the pharmacy to the teenage debater who hopes to persuade the judge to vote affirmative. Possible attitudes toward your appeal include:

supportive (they agree with you)

apathetic (they don’t care)

doubtful (they’re not sure or have serious reservations)

hostile (they are actively opposed)

knowledgeable (they already know a great deal)

unlearned (they know nothing about it)

indifferent (the thought never occurred to them)

Knowing some key facts about the audience favorably impacts the message. The speech or essay can then be crafted in such a way that the ideas have personal meaning and relevance to your unique audience. People pay attention to ideas that compliment their own hopes, needs, and goals.

Savvy public speakers and writers adjust the theme (invention), structure (arrangement), style, vocabulary, length, and delivery to each audience. If addressing a large, heterogeneous audience, more explicit syntax and background information is needed. If addressing a specialized niche (for instance, baseball players), specialized language (like earned run averages) can be used to illuminate. What do the members of the audience have in common? Do you expect them to be good listeners? Can you estimate collective age, social status, ethnicity, education, and cultural background? Consult others who have spoken before similar audiences in the past, or check out any written records (bylaws, public minutes) that are available about the group. Will the surroundings such as lighting, acoustics, and distance impact their ability to favorably respond to you?

Communication is an exchange of information. The word exchange implies giving and taking. The orator or writer gives three things: (1) a debatable idea, (2) the evidentiary proof, and (3) a call to action. The audience receives this offering and responds with verbal, nonverbal, and sometimes written feedback. Nothing is more deflating and discouraging to a homeschool public speaker or writer than a tepid, unresponsive audience. To improve immediate feedback, consider adding novelty, humor, contrast, movement, suspense, and intensity to command attention. Above all, tailor the message to the audience. Certainly, the audience has the right to disagree as in the case of the mom who refuses the 2nd cookie, but if the audience doesn’t understand the idea, plea, argument, or information, somehow the author has failed to communicate. Although it’s hard work, effective communication rests primarily with the creator of the message because the audience is always right!

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This post concludes my three-part series on Teach the Skills of the Trivium. If you happened to miss one of the twenty-three essays, you can find a complete list under the tab The Trivium which is located in the header of each web page. Although I’ve got SO MUCH more to share about the classical trivium, it’s time to tackle the third step of Three Simple but Significant Steps to a Classical Education, “Supervise the Study of Subjects.”

Tags: arrangement, audience, call to action, composition, debatable idea, Debate, delivery, effective communication, home school, homeschool, invention, proof, public speaker, Speech, style, Writing

In ancient Greece and Rome, classical rhetoric was comprised of five canons or principles which provided a template for developing and critiquing speeches and written compositions. In canon one, INVENTION, the orator or writer determined the debatable idea, discovered the logical arguments, and developed the thesis for his speech or essay. Canon two, ARRANGEMENT, divided the speech or essay into the following parts: an introduction, a statement of facts, an outline, the proof, the refutation, and the conclusion. STYLE, canon three, involved determining purpose (instruction, persuasion, or entertainment) and selecting words for greatest effect.

Canon four, MEMORY, involved the ability to recall the elements of the speech. Every great orator was expected to recite his speech from memory, but canon four was more than simply memorizing a speech. One author, perhaps Cicero, called memory the “treasury of things invented” meaning that memory was the place where all the components of the debatable idea were stored. Additionally, memory had to do with structuring the speech so that the audience would retain the content, too, through use of enumeration and vivid descriptions. Here are two memory techniques that I have found helpful in our classical home school.

See, Say, Hear, Write, Move

Once you’ve written the speech, it’s time to start memorizing. Partition the speech into natural divisions (actors call these “beats” of character motivation), and tackle one section at a time. You could start with the introduction and learn each subsequent paragraph, or you might want to start with the conclusion and work your way backward to the beginning of the speech. Both methods work. When you select a segment to memorize, start by reading the entire section out loud. Not only are your eyes storing the content, but your ears are storing the data, too. Experiment with pronunciation, intonation, and pacing as you read the text. Decide which words or phrases are important enough to punctuate verbally with pauses, rising volume, or crisp consonants. Carefully listen to yourself speak. After you’ve read through this section, copy the text word for word, reading aloud as you write.

Now stand up and go back to the first sentence. Read it aloud while moving until you can recite it from memory. You might try an outstretched arm at an appropriate moment, or you might walk to the right and place your hands on your hips. Do the same with the second sentence, and this time, recite sentences one and two. Add sentence three so that now you recite the first three sentences from memory. Continue this repetitive layering technique until you’ve got the entire paragraph memorized. When you’ve got the first paragraph memorized, start on paragraph number two. Follow the same procedure and recite both paragraphs from memory. Keep plugging away by using all your senses until you’ve got the whole speech down.

Imagine the Room

Ancient orators used to “place” certain portions of the speech in the room where they would give the speech. For instance, if Quintilian was preparing a speech for the assembly gathering in the Roman Forum, he might go to the Forum and walk around looking for distinct images which he could then tag as he memorized his speech. He decided in advance where he would physically deliver or geographically “place” each component of the speech: the intro to the center steps, point number one to the marble column on the left, point number two to the statuary on the right, and the conclusion to the entrance. As the speech unfolds, each section is recalled as the images are viewed. This technique involves tagging by association; when you want to recall a certain portion of the speech, think of the tag, and you’ll remember the content associated with that tag.

So what do you do when you aren’t able to visualize or visit the room in advance? Use a room from your home for tagging the speech. Place point one at the sofa, point two at the coffee table, and the conclusion at the piano. Or you might want to use a familiar traveling route as your tags…from the garage to the mailbox to the entrance to the subdivision to the traffic light to the grocery store. Do you see how this works? Learning experts say that your brain forms associations between your environment and circumstances. An example of this is the bombing of the World Trade Center; you probably remember exactly where you were and what you were doing when you heard the tragic news even though it’s been years since the event. Your brain uses spatial and otherwise meaningful clues to store and retrieve information.

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Our brains have an amazing capacity to memorize large portions of scripts and speeches. As a speech coach and frequent judge at NCFCA speech and debate tournaments, I always prefer a memorized speech over a script that is read word for word. The student who commits the speech or debate constructive to memory is free to make eye contact, tailor the text to the needs of the audience, and receive nonverbal feedback as a result. These two techniques are not limited to formal speeches given by teens. Use these two techniques now to help younger children memorize short poems, Bible passages, and even foreign languages. If your younger child is not yet reading, you can read the poem or passage into a cassette recorder or mp3 player for the “hear it” portion of the memory technique. Start now and watch your child’s “treasury of invention” grow!

Tags: arrangement, classical home school, classical rhetoric, conclusion, debatable idea, Debate, essay, five canons of rhetoric, introduction, invention, logical arguments, memorizing a speech, memory, memory techniques, NCFCA, orator, outline, proof, public speaker, speeches, style, thesis, writer, written compositions

For the past two millenia, five principles or canons have governed the creation and execution of classical rhetoric. These five canons form a template for developing and critiquing speeches and written compositions. In canon one, INVENTION, the orator or writer determines the topic, discovers the arguments, and develops the thesis for his speech or essay. Canon two, ARRANGEMENT, was called “dispositio” by the ancient Romans since it involved the disposition or arrangement of the idea and supporting arguments. Contemporary home school parents and even public school teachers spend an enormous amount of time teaching their students how to organize their thoughts often without consistent success. Let’s take a look at how ancient, medieval, Renaissance, and colonial orators arranged their material.

Introduce the Idea

In the beginning of the speech or essay, the debatable idea was introduced. Ancient Romans called the introduction the exordium, and it was during this initial stage that the public speaker established his credibility and authority as an expert on the subject. Often the speaker referred to his knowledge or personal experience with the idea. Of course, the savvy orator selected evidence during the invention stage which highlighted his expertise so that the persuasive appeal of his personal character would lend weight to his arguments. Personal character, reputation, and intelligence were important factors in disposing the audience to listen and respond just as they are important to effective communication today.

Contemporary orators and writers often add a step before the introduction called the “attention-getter.” Quotations, personal stories, jokes, or other compelling statistics open the speech so that the audience is immediately alert and receptive to the speech or essay.

State the Facts

The second part of a classical discourse was called narratio or narration. A narrative account of the facts is provided, and a general explanation of the case or idea is outlined. The current state of affairs or status quo was usually described with vivid word pictures that stirred the emotions and prepared the audience to favorably consider the arguments. Although a direct appeal to accept the arguments was not made at this point, the underlying intention of the narration was to move or persuade. Today, we call this portion of the speech or essay the exposition…the facts are exposed.

Outline the Proposal

Once the facts were stated and summarized, the ancient orator briefly outlined the evidence that was to follow. Contemporary audiences would recognize this ancient practice as the place in the speech where the speaker tells you what he’s going to tell you! For example, after the attention-getter and introduction of the thesis statement, an excellent orator will “sign-post” where he’s going with the speech or essay by using transition words like “first,” “secondly,” “next,” “finally.” Then he launches into the substance of the speech or essay.

Nail the Proof

Called the confirmation, this main body of the speech was devoted to the evidence. Quality content and logical arguments were imperative. It was here that the orator proved the points of his case or debatable idea. Now he would reveal the evidence that was derived during the question portion of the invention stage starting with the least powerful proof and gradually building to the most powerful and convincing proof as the climax of the argument.

The ancient orator used persuasive techniques like appeals to exhort the audience to recognize the benefits that would accrue to each of them if they adopted his position. He often appealed to material, spiritual, or emotional self-interest. (Contemporary copywriters call this technique “what’s in it for me?”) Sometimes, the orator exposed the inherent danger of acting on the opposing idea. Ethical and logical appeals were also made when the orator wanted to move the audience toward decisions of public good like caring for widows and orphans. Above all, the ancient orator appealed to reason or the logic of his case, so it’s not surprising that ancient orators and audiences highly regarded critical thinkers.

Refute the Opposition

This portion of the speech was devoted to answering the counterarguments of one’s opponents. Of course, in order to refute, the orator had to know both sides of the argument. During the invention stage, he gathered evidence for his case and against his case. Often during the speech, the orator asked imaginary questions in anticipation of the objections being raised in the minds of his audience; he then answered these imaginary objections. Sometimes the orator denigrated the authority or credibility of an opponent. At other times, the ancient orator found it useful to reject an alternative idea as immaterial, ridiculous, unnecessary, absurd, false, or morally wrong. Today we regularly reject opposing ideas as too expensive in terms of time and money.

Conclude and Call to Action

The peroration or conclusion of the speech included a summary of the debatable idea, the arguments, and the refutation in a compelling, climactic manner. The Greek word for climax means “ladder,” and a rhetorical climax looks just like a ladder: the words, phrases, and ideas are arranged in a manner of increasing importance often in parallel structure. Usually, a final appeal was made to the listener to act on the orator’s advice.

The Apostle Paul, trained in classical rhetoric, concludes the argument of chapter 4 of The Epistle to the Romans with a climactic conclusion: “we also boast in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us, because God’s love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit that has been given to us.” (Romans 5:3-5 NRSV). Another example from Scripture of a classical conclusion is found in the genealogy of Jesus the Messiah at the end of Matthew, chapter 1. After listing all the generations from Abraham to Jesus, Matthew concludes with “So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; and from David to the deportation to Babylon, fourteen generations; and from the deportation to Babylon to the Messiah, fourteen generations.” (Matthew 1:17 NRSV). Arguably, the most famous peroration in Scripture could be the destruction of the Northern Kingdom, Israel, found in 2 Kings 17:1-22 which concludes the historian’s exposition and arguments for the fall of Israel.

So now I hope you see how important artful arrangement is to the effective communication of the message and the ultimate persuasion of your audience. The orator or writer needs an introduction, a statement of facts, an outline, the proof, the refutation, and the conclusion. Although I’ve just given you a lot of detail, you can really boil classical rhetoric down to the idea, the proof, and the call to action. Canon three, STYLE, is the subject of the next post on “Communicating Well,” skill set three of the classical trivium.

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One of the first exercises for teaching classical rhetoric in Quintilian’s Progymnasmata was storytelling. If you have younger kids, prepare them for classical rhetoric now by teaching them how to narrate stories. Read them a story, close the book, and ask them to tell you the story in their own words. If they are having trouble, coach them through the beginning, middle, and end. Teach them how to ask the standard questions: who, what, when, where, how, and why. Eventually, they will learn how to quickly summarize the story which will be useful later when incorporating narratives in their speeches and writing as well as in literary analysis.

Tags: arrangement, attention-getter, classical rhetoric, climax, conclusion, confirmation, counterarguments, critical thinkers, debatable idea, dispositio, effective communication, essay, evidence, exordium, exposition, home school, invention, logical arguments, narratio, narration, orator, organize thoughts, outline, peroration, persuasive appeals, principles of classical rhetoric, proof, public speaker, refutation, speeches, style, thesis, transitions, written compositions

The oldest surviving Latin text on communicating effectively, Rhetorica ad Herennium (possibly written by the ancient Roman orator Cicero), outlines five canons or principles by which all rhetoric is judged. These five canons form a template for critiquing speeches and written compositions as well as a pattern for educating your home school children in rhetoric. Adopted from classical Greek rhetors (orators) like Isocrates, Plato, and Aristotle, this definitive guide to rhetoric was studied by the most famous orator in ancient Rome, Quintilian, as well as leading Christian medieval and Renaissance orators like Saint Augustine, Desiderius Erasmus, and Sir Francis Bacon. Although our family has not read Cicero’s original text, we use a contemporary text, Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student, by Edward Corbett which extensively explains and illustrates this tradition that has been practiced in Western culture for over two thousand years. Over the next 5 posts, I’ll reveal the template or pattern of classical rhetoric. Canon one, INVENTION, is the subject of this post.

Determine the Topic

Discovering the main idea of the speech or essay is the first step of invention. What do you want to talk about in your speech or essay? Aristotle organized the potential topics of speeches into two categories: common and special. Common topics included definition of terms, division of the material into parts, comparison of similarities and contrast of differences, and testimonies of authorities. Common topics could be applied to any idea. Special topics were related to the three classical discourses and included justice, honor, and worthiness.

Sometimes we brainstorm for topics, but usually we simply select one of the more interesting subtopics of our homeschool academic reading (history, literature, philosophy, Scripture, science, etc). For example, Connor is reading about the battle of Gettysburg in the novel, The Killer Angels, by Michael Shaara. When I gave him the book to read, I told him that I wanted a 10 paragraph paper from him on one debatable point. As he’s read the compelling narrative, he’s been struck by the honorable character of three officers: Lee, Longstreet, and Chamberlain. Now if you were heavily influenced by the stories your great grandmother told, you may not find all three men honorable because two of the men he’s chosen to write about were Confederate officers and one a Union officer. However, Connor is going to argue that their characters transcended their national loyalties. That’s a debatable point or idea; it’s not a simple declaration of objective fact, but rather, there is subjectivity in the idea which is supported by evidence.

Discover the Arguments

During invention, ask lots of questions and discover arguments to support your point of view or case. In this exercise, try to find the core conflict of the debate. What is the real issue? Ancient orators asked four types questions:

1. Is it true?

Questions of fact deal with truth which can be supported by actual objective evidence. In the example above, there are many facts to be examined such as Robert E. Lee and James Longstreet were both Confederate Generals while Joshua Chamberlain was a Union General.

2. What is it?

Questions of definition make a call about the nature of the idea. In our example, Connor would define character, the Confederacy, and the United States among other terms.

3. Is it important?

Questions of quality ask why the idea is important. Value judgments enter into these questions as each author will have differing opinions as to the importance or meaning of the idea.

4. Is this the right audience?

Questions of jurisdiction ask whether the venue for the speech or paper is the best for this issue or idea. An ancient orator would not present a deliberative speech to a judge just as the same orator would not present a forensic speech to a city council member.

The ultimate purpose of questions is to find arguments and evidence that support your point of view or case.

Develop the Thesis Statement

Once you’ve determined the topic of your speech or essay and developed the questions that support the topic, it’s time to develop a thesis statement. The word thesis often gives my writing students the quakes, probably because a good thesis statement is generally more difficult to create than a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a declarative statement which states a general fact usually followed by supporting facts. A thesis statement is a debatable point or claim. To be debatable, there must be differing opinions or conflicting facts which call into question the validity of the statement. Thus, the orator or author must prove his idea or claim with hard evidence. To distinguish between a topic sentence and thesis statement, I’ll provide an easy example from Connor’s essay:

• Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet, and Joshua Chamberlain were men of character. (a topic sentence)

• Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet, and Joshua Chamberlain were men of character because they allowed their decent, chivalric upbringing to transcend their nationalistic loyalties. (a thesis statement)

What’s the difference? The second sentence takes a position on each man’s upbringing that must be proven with evidence whereas the first sentence is a statement of fact which does not claim to know why they were men of character. There could be many unique reasons for why each man has character which makes the idea debatable. The debatable component of the idea is what makes invention so much fun and challenging. We think to uncover the truth which is the essential purpose of canon one of classical rhetoric, invention. Once you’ve invented your debatable idea, you can move on to canon two, arrangement, which is the subject of my next post.

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Do you have a child who struggles with writing thesis statements? Use the following acronym to help trigger debatable points: “www.asia.” Although Andrew Pudewa teaches this as a stylistic dress up, I think you could use it for another purpose:  developing a thesis.  “www.asia” stands for:

when

while

where

as

since

if

although

If you tacked any of these words onto the end of a regular topic sentence then add a supporting phrase, you might have a thesis statement that needs proof. Try it next time!

Tags: 5 canons of rhetoric, Andrew Pudewa, Cicero, classical discourse, classical rhetoric, communicating effectively, deliberative speech, forensic speech, home school, homeschool, inventio, invention, Rhetoric, Rhetoric ad Herennium, speeches, thesis statement, topic sentence, topics for essays, topics for speeches, written compositions