In ancient Greece and Rome, classical rhetoric was comprised of five canons or principles which provided a template for developing and critiquing speeches and written compositions. In canon one, INVENTION, the orator or writer determined the debatable idea, discovered the logical arguments, and developed the thesis for his speech or essay. Canon two, ARRANGEMENT, divided the speech or essay into the following parts: an introduction, a statement of facts, an outline, the proof, the refutation, and the conclusion. STYLE, canon three, involved determining purpose (instruction, persuasion, or entertainment) and selecting words for greatest effect.

Canon four, MEMORY, involved the ability to recall the elements of the speech. Every great orator was expected to recite his speech from memory, but canon four was more than simply memorizing a speech. One author, perhaps Cicero, called memory the “treasury of things invented” meaning that memory was the place where all the components of the debatable idea were stored. Additionally, memory had to do with structuring the speech so that the audience would retain the content, too, through use of enumeration and vivid descriptions. Here are two memory techniques that I have found helpful in our classical home school.

See, Say, Hear, Write, Move

Once you’ve written the speech, it’s time to start memorizing. Partition the speech into natural divisions (actors call these “beats” of character motivation), and tackle one section at a time. You could start with the introduction and learn each subsequent paragraph, or you might want to start with the conclusion and work your way backward to the beginning of the speech. Both methods work. When you select a segment to memorize, start by reading the entire section out loud. Not only are your eyes storing the content, but your ears are storing the data, too. Experiment with pronunciation, intonation, and pacing as you read the text. Decide which words or phrases are important enough to punctuate verbally with pauses, rising volume, or crisp consonants. Carefully listen to yourself speak. After you’ve read through this section, copy the text word for word, reading aloud as you write.

Now stand up and go back to the first sentence. Read it aloud while moving until you can recite it from memory. You might try an outstretched arm at an appropriate moment, or you might walk to the right and place your hands on your hips. Do the same with the second sentence, and this time, recite sentences one and two. Add sentence three so that now you recite the first three sentences from memory. Continue this repetitive layering technique until you’ve got the entire paragraph memorized. When you’ve got the first paragraph memorized, start on paragraph number two. Follow the same procedure and recite both paragraphs from memory. Keep plugging away by using all your senses until you’ve got the whole speech down.

Imagine the Room

Ancient orators used to “place” certain portions of the speech in the room where they would give the speech. For instance, if Quintilian was preparing a speech for the assembly gathering in the Roman Forum, he might go to the Forum and walk around looking for distinct images which he could then tag as he memorized his speech. He decided in advance where he would physically deliver or geographically “place” each component of the speech: the intro to the center steps, point number one to the marble column on the left, point number two to the statuary on the right, and the conclusion to the entrance. As the speech unfolds, each section is recalled as the images are viewed. This technique involves tagging by association; when you want to recall a certain portion of the speech, think of the tag, and you’ll remember the content associated with that tag.

So what do you do when you aren’t able to visualize or visit the room in advance? Use a room from your home for tagging the speech. Place point one at the sofa, point two at the coffee table, and the conclusion at the piano. Or you might want to use a familiar traveling route as your tags…from the garage to the mailbox to the entrance to the subdivision to the traffic light to the grocery store. Do you see how this works? Learning experts say that your brain forms associations between your environment and circumstances. An example of this is the bombing of the World Trade Center; you probably remember exactly where you were and what you were doing when you heard the tragic news even though it’s been years since the event. Your brain uses spatial and otherwise meaningful clues to store and retrieve information.

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Our brains have an amazing capacity to memorize large portions of scripts and speeches. As a speech coach and frequent judge at NCFCA speech and debate tournaments, I always prefer a memorized speech over a script that is read word for word. The student who commits the speech or debate constructive to memory is free to make eye contact, tailor the text to the needs of the audience, and receive nonverbal feedback as a result. These two techniques are not limited to formal speeches given by teens. Use these two techniques now to help younger children memorize short poems, Bible passages, and even foreign languages. If your younger child is not yet reading, you can read the poem or passage into a cassette recorder or mp3 player for the “hear it” portion of the memory technique. Start now and watch your child’s “treasury of invention” grow!

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The five canons or principles of classical rhetoric form a template for developing and critiquing speeches and written compositions. In canon one, INVENTION, the orator or writer determines the debatable idea, discovers the logical arguments, and develops the thesis for his speech or essay. Canon two, ARRANGEMENT, divides the speech or essay into the following parts: an introduction, a statement of facts, an outline, the proof, the refutation, and the conclusion. The third canon, STYLE, was known as elocutio (from loqui “to speak”), and of the five canons, style is the most difficult to define since each orator or writer expresses a unique creative energy. Breathtaking style is one of those nebulous things that is challenging to describe, but you know it when you see it! If invention is what you say, and arrangement is how you organize what you say, then style is how you say it.

What is your Purpose?

Ancient orators defined three levels of style: (1) low or plain, (2) middle or forcible, and (3) high or florid. In preparing the speech, the orator first decided his purpose. Was he going to instruct in the debatable idea? If so, he chose to use the low or plain style with his apprentices or students. His relationship with these individuals was more intimate, and there was no need to impress with sophisticated language or creative pleas. The instructional speech was more like a conversation in that practical information was passed along using normal, everyday language.

Perhaps the orator wanted to persuade an audience to act for the public good or judge a defendant as in political or legal speeches. In that case, he would choose the middle or forcible style of communication. An orator delivering a persuasive speech would probably speak to a larger audience which would have included many members whom he did not personally know or some who may have been enemies. The language for such an audience and purpose would be particular to the specific points of the debatable idea. Urging the audience to adopt his position, the skilled orator would choose convincing words and figures of speech such as metaphors and similes to coax his audience to his point of view.

Finally, many ceremonial occasions demanded oratory. Public holidays, religious festivals, weddings, funerals, and graduations require a lighter touch than the persuasive speech. Themes such as honor, patriotism, and faithfulness might be expounded. For such events, the orator would choose language to charm and entertain.

How will you Arrange the Words?

Which words will you select? The choice of and arrangement words in ancient times depended on the purpose of the speech and the audience to whom the speech was directed. Anyone who puts so much time and effort into preparing a speech or essay cares immensely about the appropriateness of the words because words have the power to move people.

Have you chosen the most appropriate words? Should they be pure and simple or ornate? Is specialized vocabulary needed? Does the grammar appear proper? Are the tenses consistent? Should you use the standard syntax for arranging the words or break a rule to produce an unexpected surprise? Would repetition of words or phrases be effective? Are your points concise? Have you chosen words that emotionally move the audience? Did you consider the sound and rhythm of the words and phrases? Would figures of speech like metaphor, personification, or simile aid in communicating your message?

William Strunk, Jr. and E.B. White, authors of The Elements of Style, say that style is a high mystery.

“Who can confidently say what ignites a certain combination of words, causing them to explode in the mind?”

Each person approaches the same content differently; each of your children will manifest a unique style of speaking and writing that reveals something of his or her spirit. There are boundless opportunities for creative expression. Encourage your children to experiment with style as if they were painting pictures with words and delight their audience!

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Here’s a fun exercise. Take a much-quoted sentence, and have the kids play with rearranging the words. Stunk and White offer this example to get you started: “These are the times that try men’s souls.” Variations include:

• Times like these try men’s souls.
• How trying it is to live in these times!
• These are trying times for men’s souls.
• Soulwise, these are trying times.

Which sentence do you like best? Now it’s your turn! MEMORY is the fourth canon of classical rhetoric and the subject of the next post. Stay tuned…

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For the past two millenia, five principles or canons have governed the creation and execution of classical rhetoric. These five canons form a template for developing and critiquing speeches and written compositions. In canon one, INVENTION, the orator or writer determines the topic, discovers the arguments, and develops the thesis for his speech or essay. Canon two, ARRANGEMENT, was called “dispositio” by the ancient Romans since it involved the disposition or arrangement of the idea and supporting arguments. Contemporary home school parents and even public school teachers spend an enormous amount of time teaching their students how to organize their thoughts often without consistent success. Let’s take a look at how ancient, medieval, Renaissance, and colonial orators arranged their material.

Introduce the Idea

In the beginning of the speech or essay, the debatable idea was introduced. Ancient Romans called the introduction the exordium, and it was during this initial stage that the public speaker established his credibility and authority as an expert on the subject. Often the speaker referred to his knowledge or personal experience with the idea. Of course, the savvy orator selected evidence during the invention stage which highlighted his expertise so that the persuasive appeal of his personal character would lend weight to his arguments. Personal character, reputation, and intelligence were important factors in disposing the audience to listen and respond just as they are important to effective communication today.

Contemporary orators and writers often add a step before the introduction called the “attention-getter.” Quotations, personal stories, jokes, or other compelling statistics open the speech so that the audience is immediately alert and receptive to the speech or essay.

State the Facts

The second part of a classical discourse was called narratio or narration. A narrative account of the facts is provided, and a general explanation of the case or idea is outlined. The current state of affairs or status quo was usually described with vivid word pictures that stirred the emotions and prepared the audience to favorably consider the arguments. Although a direct appeal to accept the arguments was not made at this point, the underlying intention of the narration was to move or persuade. Today, we call this portion of the speech or essay the exposition…the facts are exposed.

Outline the Proposal

Once the facts were stated and summarized, the ancient orator briefly outlined the evidence that was to follow. Contemporary audiences would recognize this ancient practice as the place in the speech where the speaker tells you what he’s going to tell you! For example, after the attention-getter and introduction of the thesis statement, an excellent orator will “sign-post” where he’s going with the speech or essay by using transition words like “first,” “secondly,” “next,” “finally.” Then he launches into the substance of the speech or essay.

Nail the Proof

Called the confirmation, this main body of the speech was devoted to the evidence. Quality content and logical arguments were imperative. It was here that the orator proved the points of his case or debatable idea. Now he would reveal the evidence that was derived during the question portion of the invention stage starting with the least powerful proof and gradually building to the most powerful and convincing proof as the climax of the argument.

The ancient orator used persuasive techniques like appeals to exhort the audience to recognize the benefits that would accrue to each of them if they adopted his position. He often appealed to material, spiritual, or emotional self-interest. (Contemporary copywriters call this technique “what’s in it for me?”) Sometimes, the orator exposed the inherent danger of acting on the opposing idea. Ethical and logical appeals were also made when the orator wanted to move the audience toward decisions of public good like caring for widows and orphans. Above all, the ancient orator appealed to reason or the logic of his case, so it’s not surprising that ancient orators and audiences highly regarded critical thinkers.

Refute the Opposition

This portion of the speech was devoted to answering the counterarguments of one’s opponents. Of course, in order to refute, the orator had to know both sides of the argument. During the invention stage, he gathered evidence for his case and against his case. Often during the speech, the orator asked imaginary questions in anticipation of the objections being raised in the minds of his audience; he then answered these imaginary objections. Sometimes the orator denigrated the authority or credibility of an opponent. At other times, the ancient orator found it useful to reject an alternative idea as immaterial, ridiculous, unnecessary, absurd, false, or morally wrong. Today we regularly reject opposing ideas as too expensive in terms of time and money.

Conclude and Call to Action

The peroration or conclusion of the speech included a summary of the debatable idea, the arguments, and the refutation in a compelling, climactic manner. The Greek word for climax means “ladder,” and a rhetorical climax looks just like a ladder: the words, phrases, and ideas are arranged in a manner of increasing importance often in parallel structure. Usually, a final appeal was made to the listener to act on the orator’s advice.

The Apostle Paul, trained in classical rhetoric, concludes the argument of chapter 4 of The Epistle to the Romans with a climactic conclusion: “we also boast in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us, because God’s love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit that has been given to us.” (Romans 5:3-5 NRSV). Another example from Scripture of a classical conclusion is found in the genealogy of Jesus the Messiah at the end of Matthew, chapter 1. After listing all the generations from Abraham to Jesus, Matthew concludes with “So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; and from David to the deportation to Babylon, fourteen generations; and from the deportation to Babylon to the Messiah, fourteen generations.” (Matthew 1:17 NRSV). Arguably, the most famous peroration in Scripture could be the destruction of the Northern Kingdom, Israel, found in 2 Kings 17:1-22 which concludes the historian’s exposition and arguments for the fall of Israel.

So now I hope you see how important artful arrangement is to the effective communication of the message and the ultimate persuasion of your audience. The orator or writer needs an introduction, a statement of facts, an outline, the proof, the refutation, and the conclusion. Although I’ve just given you a lot of detail, you can really boil classical rhetoric down to the idea, the proof, and the call to action. Canon three, STYLE, is the subject of the next post on “Communicating Well,” skill set three of the classical trivium.

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One of the first exercises for teaching classical rhetoric in Quintilian’s Progymnasmata was storytelling. If you have younger kids, prepare them for classical rhetoric now by teaching them how to narrate stories. Read them a story, close the book, and ask them to tell you the story in their own words. If they are having trouble, coach them through the beginning, middle, and end. Teach them how to ask the standard questions: who, what, when, where, how, and why. Eventually, they will learn how to quickly summarize the story which will be useful later when incorporating narratives in their speeches and writing as well as in literary analysis.

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During ancient and medieval times, classical rhetoric was strictly defined in one of three ways: deliberative oratory, forensic oratory, or epideictic oratory. I prefer to call these 3 kinds of classical discourse by their function: political, legal, and ceremonial speeches. Although these are ancient forms of communication, they are still practiced effectively today in the public realm. Here’s a quick primer for you:

Political Oratory

The term “deliberative” oratory originates with usage; elite orators deliberated over public affairs such as whether to go to war, whether to raise taxes, whether to enter alliances, and whether to construct infrastructure like bridges and baths. The point of deliberative (political) oratory was to persuade the audience to do something or accept a certain point of view. Concerned with the future (either we will or will not do it), political orators focused on expediency (the opportunity is now…let’s do it) and inexpediency (it is not wise or prudent to take this action) by exhorting (strongly urging) and dissuading (advising against) the audience.

Deliberative oratory is still practiced today in the U.S. Capitol, the White House, and in state and municipal centers around the country. Home school teenagers who participate in local, regional, and national debate competitions engage in deliberative oratory as they seek to persuade the judge to adopt either the affirmative or negative position.

Legal Oratory

The term “forensic” is often used in relation to crime scene evidence, but the latin root of forensic is actually “forum” which was the central gathering place in ancient cities where judicial and public business was discussed. Public speakers who delivered forensic or legal oratory were usually advocated the defense or condemnation of individuals and their related actions. Unlike deliberative or political orators, forensic orators are concerned with the past. That past could be crimes committed, charges unjustly brought, or behavior that needs public reckoning. Topics most often addressed were justice and injustice by means of accusation or defense.

Today’s forensic oratory is most often heard in courtrooms as attorneys plead the cases of their clients before judges. In fact, law schools still consistently teach a variation of this classical discourse.

Ceremonial Oratory

Epideictic, a greek derivative, means “for display,” so it shouldn’t surprise you that I choose to call this type of classical discourse “ceremonial.” Demonstrative or declamatory in nature, the ceremonial speech intended to please, to inspire, to entertain, or to shame. Concerned with the present, topics most often included honor or dishonor. The means by which the ceremonial orator got his message across were either praise or blame. The nature of the speech lends it to literary style more so than the other two kinds of classical discourse.

Although politicians often find themselves using this speech when introducing their superiors (praise) or their rivals (blame), we most often hear this kind of discourse at celebrations like Fourth of July Parades, Memorial Day Services, and other public ceremonies. Pastors often employ this style even though they also use the deliberative discourse to encourage their congregation to do the right thing. The Gettysburg Address is a contemporary example of a ceremonial speech.

Summary

The three kinds of classical discourse are:

Political Oratory:

1. The Point: to persuade for action or inaction
2. Concern: the future
3. Topics: expedient and inexpedient
4. Means: exhortation and dissuasion

Legal Oratory:

1. The Point: to defend or condemn
2. Concern: the past
3. Topics: justice and injustice
4. Means: accusation and defense

Ceremonial Oratory:

1. The Point: to please, inspire, entertain, or shame
2. Concern: the present
3. Topics: honor and dishonor
4. Means: praise and blame

If you think about who delivered these 3 types of classical discourse and what positions they held in society, you quickly see that they were all societal leaders. Politicians, legislators, executives, lawyers, judges, pastors, and others of importance to the community employed the systematic tools of classical rhetoric to impact their culture in significant ways. If you hope to raise leaders, then you need to consider how classical rhetoric factors into your plans for teaching them in communicating effectively.

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As I briefly mentioned in “Could You Define Classical Rhetoric?“, rhetoric is the art of oratory. Today we generally refer to oratory as “public speaking” or “speech;” however, I think you’ll agree that the principles of rhetoric can be appropriately applied to written communication like essays, research papers, and even journalism articles. Other than impromptu speeches, which happen on the spur of the moment with limited preparation time, most contemporary speeches start with a written script or at least an outline of the speaker’s (1) idea or claim, (2) proof or evidence, and (3) call to action. So for our purposes, I’ll define rhetoric as

a system for gathering, selecting, arranging, and expressing our material whether in oral or written form

Remember that rhetoric is one of the 7 liberal arts of ancient Rome. If you were to examine the other 6 liberal arts (language, logic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, and arithmetic), you would realize that each of these arts involves a system for gathering, selecting, arranging, and expressing the material.

Let’s modernize this concept. You could probably list a vast number of “arts” that also involve a system for accumulating, organizing, and presenting the material. For instance, the “art of cooking” involves deciding on the recipe, gathering the ingredients, combining the ingredients in a certain measure and order, cooking the mixture, arranging the final presentation, and serving the delightful dish to the audience. In a nutshell, the chef has concocted an idea, presented evidence to prove her idea, and announced a call to action: “eat and enjoy!” The art of gardening, the art sewing, and the art of singing are just three examples which follow a similar pattern of idea, proof, and call to action. Likewise, the master writer or orator develops an idea, presents the evidence, and calls the audience to action.

In other words, rhetoric for the classical home school is not a stage of educational progress, but rather a set of procedures and criteria that guide the author or orator in making strategic decisions during the composition process. During ancient and medieval times, this system was tightly defined as 3 kinds of persuasive discourse (deliberative, forensic, and epideictic oratory) which are the subjects of my next post.

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Have you watched my parent tutorial yet on “The 7 Laws of Teaching?” It’s just a little over 30 minutes in length and full of practical teaching tips that I have used in my own home school. You’ll learn a little history to put the 7 laws in context as well as assess your own expertise in the areas of teaching language, critical thinking, and communicating well. Click on parent tutorial image in the upper right corner of this page now, and the flash presentation will begin right away.

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According to the honorable Zell Miller, former governor of the state of Georgia and United States Senator,

“Twenty years of votes can tell you much more about a man than twenty weeks of campaign rhetoric. Campaign talk tells people who you want them to think you are. How you vote tells people who you really are deep inside.”

Although you’ve heard the word “rhetoric” used in contemporary conversations, you might not have a clear idea of what it means in terms of an authentic classical education. The two most common usages of the word rhetoric in my community of Christian home schoolers are as follows: (1) the inflated verbosity of politicians to win votes at all costs, and (2) the misuse of the original term to describe a “stage” of classical home education, generally the high school years. Our lack of understanding stems from the fact that the term rhetoric belongs to an art (remember the 7 “liberal arts” of a classical education?) that was constructed during ancient times, practiced for thousands of years, yet abruptly abandoned as a fundamental discipline in our public schools during the middle to late 1800s. In short,

Rhetoric is the art of oratory.

For thousands of years, classical rhetoric was classified as (1) verbal, (2) conciliatory, (3) persuasive requests (as opposed to coercive demands) that were (4) delivered by a single orator. More recently with the invention of the printing press, the term rhetoric was broadened to include written as well as spoken oratory. Oratory, derived from the latin infinitive “orare” which means “to pray”, is simply the art of speaking in public and writing for the public. The same principles of rhetoric are applied to both oral and written disciplines.

Classical rhetoric is the art or discipline of using written and spoken discourse to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience…the very essence of the speech or essay is meant to move the listener or reader. According to Scottish Presbyterian Minister and Master of Rhetoric, George Campbell,

“we discourse to enlighten the understanding, to please the imagination, to move the passions, or influence the will.”

Although Campbell was primarily interested in the art of rhetoric because he believed it would result in better preachers, contemporary home school parents see the application of rhetoric to a whole slew of opportunities from platform, interpretive, and limited preparation speeches and essays to books, sermons, and face-to-face encounters in the community.

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Classical rhetoric, simply put, consists of 3 steps: (1) the idea, (2) the proof, and (3) the delivery or style. In my next post, I’ll elaborate on the three kinds of classical discourse. Please consider telling a friend about The Classical Scholar by clicking on the email envelope above this post.